Unfamiliar terrain and oft told tales of “lost” hunters makes the average person wary of losing sight of the highway and his parked car, or leaving the valley in which his camp is located. Few hunters have taken the time or made any effort to learn to use a compass and to read a topographic map. I can recall only one instance where a topographic map of the locality was hanging on the wall of the hunting lodge. This was in the Northwestern portion of the State of Maine where roads in the woods were infrequent and an overlay marking several blazed trails had been drawn on the map. The visitor who studied the map and confined his route to a blazed trail could travel through the woods with confidence to his des­tination. It is entirely possible to sit comfortably at home and lay out a day’s hunt in the deer range on a United States Geo­logical Survey topographic map, just as you plan your auto­mobile route on a highway map or locate a definite place in a city or town by the use of a street map. With a little practice you can look at a topographic map and visualize the hills and valleys, the streams, and road system of the area in which you intend to hunt.

Features represented on a topographic map are of three different kinds: (i) inequalities of the earth’s surface called “relief”, as: hills, valleys, plains, plateaus, and mountains; (2) distribution of water, called “drainage,” as: streams, lakes, and swamps; and (3) the works of man, called “culture,” as: roads, railroads, utility lines, boundaries, houses, villages, and cities.

The topographic map of the United States is published in sheets 20 by 161/2 inches. The map occupies about 171/2 inches of height and 111/2 to 16 inches of width, the latter dimension varying with the latitude. The four cornered division of land shown on a single sheet is called a “quadrangle” and it covers 15 minutes of latitude by 15 minutes of longitude on a “scale” of 1:62500. Scale is defined as the relation between distance in nature and corresponding distance on a map. Since there are 63,360 inches in a mile, the scale of 1:62500, or as it is fre­quently written as a fraction 1/62500 represents approximately 1 mile on the ground to one inch on the map. Thus a square of the map surface measuring 1 inch on each side repre­sents about 1 square mile of the earth’s surface, and a single quadrangle sheet can depict an area of approximately 250 square miles of the territory in which you plan to hunt. The margin of these sheets, being only parts of one great map of the United States, disregard political boundary lines, such as those of states, counties, and townships. To each sheet, and to the quadrangle which it represents, is given the name of some well known town or natural feature within its limits, and at the sides and corners of each sheet the names of adjacent sheets, if they have been published, are printed. The scale of 1:62,500 is used for the thickly settled or industrially important parts of the United States. For the greater part of the country an intermediate scale of about two miles to the inch is employed. A third and still smaller scale of about four miles to the inch; i.e., 1:250,000 has been used in the desert regions of the far West.

Culture on the map is shown by conventional signs, and these man-made works are illustrated on the side margin or the back of the individual sheet. On the map, culture is shown in black, in which color all lettering also is printed. Boundaries, such as state, county, city, reservation, etc. are shown by broken lines of different weights. Cities are marked by black blocks, representing the built-up portions, and country houses by small black blocks. Roads are shown by fine double lines (full for the better roads, dotted for the inferior ones), trails by single dotted lines, and railroads by full black lines with cross lines.

All water features are shown in blue, the smaller streams and canals in full blue lines, and the larger streams, lakes, and the sea by blue water-lining. Certain streams, however, which flow during only a part of the year, their beds being dry at other times, are shown, not by full lines, but by lines of dots and dashes. Ponds which are dry for a part of the year are shown by oblique parallel lines. Salt water marshes are shown by hori­zontal ruling interspersed with tufts of blue, and freshwater swamps and marshes by blue tufts with broken horizontal lines.

Relief is shown by contour lines in brown. Each contour passes through points which have the same altitude. One who follows a contour on the ground will go neither uphill or down­hill, but on the level. By the use of contours, not only are the shapes of the plains, hills, and mountains shown, but also the elevations. The line of the seacoast itself is a contour line, the datum or zero of elevation being mean sea level. The contour line at, say, 20 feet above sea level is the line that would be the sea coast if the sea were to rise or the land were to sink 20 feet. Such a line runs back up the valleys and forward around the points of hills and spurs. On a gentle slope this contour line is far from the present coast line, while on a steep slope it is near it. Thus a succession of these contour lines far apart on the map indicates a gentle slope; if close together, a steep slope; and if the contours run together in one line, as if each were vertically under the one above it, they indicate a cliff. In many parts of the country there are depressions or hollows with no outlets. The contours of course surround these, just as they surround hills. These small hollows known as “sinks” are usually indicated by “hachures,” or short dashes, on the inside of the curve. The contour interval, or the vertical distance in feet between one contour and the next, is stated at the bottom of each map. This interval varies from quadrangle to quadrangle according to the character of the area mapped. In a flat country it may be as small as ten feet; in a mountainous country it may be 200 feet. Certain contours, usually every fifth one, are accompanied by figures stating the elevation in feet above sea level. The heights of many definite points, such as road intersections, railroad crossings, railroad stations, summits, water surfaces, triangula-tion stations, are also given. The figures in each case are placed close to the point to which they apply. At the bottom of each map sheet the scale of the map is expressed in three ways: by a graduated line representing miles and parts of miles in inches, by a similar line indicating distance in the metric system, which is the system of measurement used by the French, and by a numerical fraction which has been previously explained.

The manner in which contours express elevation, form, and grade is shown in the following sketch and corresponding con­tour map, Figure 44. If we can grasp the significance of these contour lines, the physical aspects of the terrain in an unex­plored section of our hunting territory will be familiar to us after we have made a close study of the topographic map. The sketch represents a river valley between two hills as we would see it from an airplane approaching the coast line from the sea. In the foreground is the sea, with a bay which is partly closed by a hooked sand bar. On each side of the valley is a terrace. From the terrace on the right a hill rises gradually, while from that on the left the ground ascends steeply, forming a precipice. Contrasted with this precipice is the gentle slope from its top toward the left. In the map each of these features is indicated, directly beneath its position in the sketch, by con­tours.

Figure 44.

The following explanation may make clearer the manner in which these contours trace out elevation, form, and grade: A contour, we have learned, indicates a certain height above sea level. In the illustration, the contour interval, which is the vertical distance between adjoining contours, is shown as 50 feet; therefore the contours are drawn at 50, 100, 150, and 200 feet, and so on, above mean sea level. In the space between any two contours are found elevations above the lower and below the higher contour. Thus the contour at 150 feet falls just below the edge of the terrace, while that at 200 lies above the terrace; therefore all points on the terrace, the portion of the land mass designated A in the sketch, are shown to be more than 150 but less than 200 feet above the sea. The summit of the higher hill is marked 670 feet above the sea; accordingly it is surrounded by the 650 foot contour.

Topographic maps may be obtained on application to the Director, United States Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. A circular showing how they are covered by each of the quad­rangle sheets for any given state is distributed free and may be had upon request. With this circular you can select those quad­rangle sheets which are of particular interest to you. If you are in doubt as to your ability to read one of these topographic maps and are intimately acquainted with particular portions of the territory in which you hunt, I strongly suggest that you procure the quadrangle sheet of that particular area and apply the principles explained in this text to a careful study of that particular area. You will be surprised how quickly you will be able to identify certain distinguishing land marks on the map with which you are personally familiar. Without leaving your own fireside you can extend your explorations of your hunting territory into the areas which you have not visited and plan with confidence to hunt in these areas during the coming open season.

Since the surveys for these maps have been in progress since 1882, and man-made works are continually added or removed from the landscape, you must bear in mind constantly that the date of the map must be taken into consideration, in attempting to locate or identify man-made works. The date of the survey is always printed on each quadrangle sheet. Since many of these surveys in the East were made at the turn of the century, con­siderable changes have taken place since that time: railroads have been abandoned, new highways have been built, many local roads have long since been closed against vehicular traffic, etc. However, not all signs of these former works have dis­appeared; the old railroad grade will still be in evidence although trees thirty years of age may be growing on its surface; and although they may be blocked by slides, blow downs, or washed away in some spots, sufficient evidence still remains to identify the location of the former highway. The foundation walls may be all that remains of a house whose location is shown. Each of these features provides an excellent check point by which you can determine your exact location with reference to the map. If the map is to serve as a reliable guide to a hunter, there is one inflexible rule which cannot be disregarded: the starting point of the hunt must be accurately located on the topographic map, a course must be determined in advance, land marks se­lected by which the course can be verified, and last but not least you must have faith in the accuracy of the topographic map. They can be, but seldom are in error. Within the past decade, many areas covered by early issues have been resurveyed and re­mapped. Since topographic sheets are frequently sold by com­mercial establishments which purchase them in quantity from the Federal Government, make certain that you are buying maps compiled from the latest surveys. The descriptive litera­ture supplied by the Director of the Geological Survey will contain this information.

Next season, instead of wondering what lies on the other side of the ridge, take a look at your topographic map and if the area appeals to you it can be hunted safely through the knowledge you have acquired from a study of your topo­graphic map.

In a number of States the special archery big game season occurs during the time of year when the temperature may range from below freezing at night to the middle 80s during the daytime hours. To preserve the meat in prime condition when the weather is warm is a major problem, and a kill re­quires prompt attention. Carelessness, delay in dressing out a deer, or other big game animal, or failure to cool the carcass completely and quickly are to be avoided. Too often much of the meat is not fit to eat as the result of careless handling.

Transporting the meat out of the hunting territory promptly and in good condition is your objective. The quicker the car­cass is under refrigeration the better the chances that you will have a goodly supply of meat which your family and friends will enjoy. Much of the deer range in the East is adjacent and close to populated areas, and provided you can reach a refrigera­tion plant within an hour from the time you have killed your deer, it is only necessary to hog-dress the animal at the site of the kill. Transport the deer in the open trunk of your car or on a car-top carrier. Do not lay the deer between the fender and the hot hood of the automobile.

If more than one hour, but not to exceed four hours, is required for the trip on a warm day, the deer should be dressed out completely and the body cavity propped open to permit free circulation of air. However, if you cannot make arrange­ments to get the meat under refrigeration within the time limits stated, it will require special precautions during spells of warm weather to preserve the meat in good condition. The carcass should be skinned and quartered and hung in a coo], shady place which has good ventilation and permits the free circulation of fresh air. A basement or a spring house at your camp makes a suitable place. It should be screened against flies or the carcass wrapped with cheese cloth. The meat can be cooled out very satisfactorily by separating the quarters into wholesale cuts, placing the individual pieces in large lard cans, and immersing the cans in spring water. Lay a large flat stone on the top of the open can which has been covered with cheese cloth. The added weight will help to keep the can submerged about three-quarters of its height. The fewer the pieces of meat in each can, the more effective will be the cooling out process. Meat can be kept at camp in this manner until it is convenient to transport it to a refrigeration plant.

It should be apparent to the reader who has watched suc­cessful deer hunters in large numbers leaving the hunting areas with deer strapped to the hood of the automobile that the neces­sary precautions to assure a supply of edible venison are ignored by a large number of hunters. The same practices used to butcher live stock and prepare the meat for market are applicable to deer. Can you conceive of any one killing a steer, dressing out the animal, and then permitting the carcass to hang in the open during warm weather for any appreciable length of time? Nevertheless this is exactly what happens to hundreds of big game animals and the end result of such treat­ment is that the meat finally winds up in the garbage pail or at the dog house. When you have dropped your deer with a well placed arrow, you have achieved your main objective. The problem now is to translate the carcass into a supply of suc­culent steaks, chops, roasts, and other cuts. Time is of the essence and the work necessary to get the carcass under refrigeration in prime condition should be performed promptly. If this time factor is kept in mind, a novice need not be deterred from attempting the job.

Approach a fallen big game animal carefully from the back. The animal may not be dead and the danger of being struck by sharp hooves, if the animal struggles to rise on your approach, should not be ignored. If a deer is still alive shoot an arrow through the neck just under the ear. This shot will kill the deer cleanly and will help bleed the animal. Blood lowers the quality of the meat and also its ability to keep. Even though the animal has bled internally it does no harm to attempt to increase bleed­ing by sticking the animal with your hunting knife. A small sheath knife with a good thin blade four to five inches in length is preferred for use in dressing out a big game animal. A deer should be stuck at the base of the neck several inches in front of the breast bone. Plunge the knife in to the hilt and cut across the neck with a slicing draw just sufficient to sever the carotid arteries where they join midway between the shoulders. Although authorities differ on the practical results obtained by sticking a deer, it should be remembered that sticking a deer while it is alive is a dangerous operation and should not be attempted by a novice, and sticking is of doubt­ful value when the heart has ceased to beat and the animal is dead. If you do stick the animal, arrange the carcass so that the head is downhill or raise the rear portion of the animal so that blood will drain freely by gravity.

There is no argument, however, about the necessity and value of dressing out your deer immediately. If you are hunt­ing alone, the work can best be accomplished if the animal is arranged on sloping ground with the head and back on the up slope. A stout length of Manila line should be carried with you on all big game hunting trips. Use this line to tie one hind leg out of the way while you are working on the animal. If you have a hunting partner the deer can be hung from a stout limb by the head or the head and forequarters raised from the ground. Take your time and work carefully. The operation of viscerating a deer is not difficult, neither does it need to be a messy operation.

Make an incision through the hide and belly muscle at a point about eight inches back of the end of the breast bone, large enough to insert two fingers of the left hand as shown in Figure 52.

Use the back of the left hand to push the paunch and intestines out of the way to prevent cutting them. Continue the opening to a point just short of the tail, taking care not to puncture any organs while you are making the cut. Cut around the genitals on both sides and cut the hide in a complete circle around and close to the anus. Pull out the large intestine. The genitals and anus should come out -with the intestine by reaching into the belly cavity and pulling the anus through. Remove the small intestine and the stomach. The carcass at this point is termed hog-dressed; the kidneys, liver, and the “pluck,” which is the term used to describe the heart, lungs, gullet, and windpipe, remain in the carcass. If at this point you feel that you can transport your deer to a refrigeration plant within an hour you need do noth­ing further. There is no objection to flushing blood and dung out of the carcass with pure cold water. Bacterial growth is retarded by this action. Again the authorities differ. Some rec­ommend using a dry cloth or a clean piece of burlap for this purpose and warn against the use of water, although they give no reason why the use of water would be harmful.

Alone, you will probably find it necessary to drag out your deer to the nearest road. It is also safer than packing it out and having some excited hunter take a shot at you during the process. Tie a rope around the antlers or around the neck in case of an antlerless deer, bring the rope forward and throw a half hitch around the upper jaw. Tie a stout cross piece of wood to the other end of the rope to provide a handle. If the country is too rough to drag the deer or you wish to save some wear and tear on the hide, you may choose to carry the deer across your shoulders. If your deer is too large for a one man carry, you can lash it securely to a pole to provide a two man carry. In the latter case, take several turns of the rope around the body of the deer to hold it securely against the pole throughout its length. This will minimize the swaying of the carcass from side to side and make a satisfactory carry to your car. In any case drape a piece of red cloth over the carcass as a safety measure.

Let us now assume that our procedure is to be governed by the knowledge that it will take us at the outside about four hours to reach the refrigerating plant from the time we made the kill. In this case we should dress out the deer com­pletely at the site of the kill. Cut around the perimeter of the diaphragm, sever the gullet and windpipe as far forward as you can reach and draw all the organs from the chest cavity. The liver, heart, and kidneys can be placed in a plastic bag which the hunter should carry for this purpose. They are good eating and should not be discarded. Since the weather is warm you should have an axe handy with which to split the pelvic or “aitch” bone (where the hind legs are jointed) and the breast bone to permit the carcass to cool more rapidly. Considerable round can be wasted if this operation is performed carelessly. Cut two sticks and insert them between the walls of the body cavity to hold the cavity open to permit free circulation of air. Neglect of these precautions, delay in dressing out, or failure to cool completely and rapidly are things that can and should be avoided. Whenever the deer is not being transported the carcass should be hung immediately in a cool shady place, either by the head or the hind legs with the sides propped open to continue the cooling out process.

The third and last assumption that we shall consider is the case where we are faced with the necessity of holding the deer in camp during warm weather for a period of time in excess of four hours. Proceed to skin out your deer and quarter it. If the hide is permitted to remain on the carcass throughout the cooling out process the oil in the hair follicles is drawn inward through the skin and taints the flesh. The reason most deer smell when skinned out is failure to perform this operation soon enough when the temperature is above 40 de­grees. A greenish tinge appearing on the flesh indicates that bac­terial action has started and the flesh will be tainted. After the carcass is thoroughly cooled out it may be cut in quarters and wrapped in clean cheese cloth or the quarters may be placed separately in plastic bags made especially for this purpose. The covering will protect the meat from flies when the weather is warm and dust and foreign material will not be able to reach the meat when you travel. Prop the hood of the luggage com­partment of your automobile in an open position so that fresh air can circulate freely around each individual package.

If you are going to skin out and quarter your deer in camp, a light weight hacksaw with a large toothed blade, or a butcher’s saw should be available. In an emergency, an ordinary hand saw will serve the purpose. It is a difficult task to split a back­bone with an axe and a considerable amount of good meat can be mangled in the process. To attempt to split the carcass on either side of the backbone results in poorer cuts and more waste than when the backbone is sawed in half.

To skin out your deer, lay the carcass on a clean floor or cloth. Open the skin over the hock and down the inside of the legs to the body cavity. Skin out the hocks and remove the feet at the point where the “cannon” bone joins the enlarged hock. Make up a spreader as shown in Figure 53. Make an opening at the tendon at the rear of the leg and suspend the carcass as shown in the illustration. Remove the forelegs at the break joint which is located at the lower part of the knee enlargement. It is a smooth joint and is easily severed with a knife. Slit the hide along the inside of the front legs from the joint to the body cavity. In event you wish to mount the head make your next cut A around the neck at the shoulder, and open the skin on the neck as shown by the dotted lines in Figure 54. It is better to err on the safe side by taking too much rather than too little skin from the shoulders. Make cut B along the top or back of the neck to a point about three inches from the base of the antlers. Make cut C and D and pry away from the base of the antlers with a screw driver or some other blunt instrument.

The skin should now be removed from the neck forward toward the head. When the ears are reached the ear cartilage is severed just under the skin and close to the skull, leaving the ears attached to the skin. Carefully skin around the eyes and lips and be sure the inner edges of the lips are left on the skin. Skin around the nose using care not to cut through the nostrils and leave plenty of cartilage on the skin at the end of the nose.

Figure 55.

Figure 57 Figure 58

The four principal steps employed in skinning out the bal­ance of the carcass are illustrated in Figures $6 to 59 inclusive.

Figure 59.

Very little knife work is necessary to remove the skin from the carcass. Figure 57 shows the position of the hands in pull­ing the hide loose from the back and loin. To avoid tearing the thin muscle covering the side, Figure 58 shows how the closed fist and knife handle are used to help separate the hide and prevent tearing. After the sides are free, the skin is easily pulled from the ribs in the manner shown in Figure 59. When the shoulders are reached the skin is best removed by fisting until the forelegs are freed. From this point it is a simple matter to pull the hide free from the carcass at the shoulders. Use plenty of clean water to wash all hair and blood from the carcass, and remove blood stains on the hair by sponging with luke warm water. Rub the skin-side of the pelt with a liberal amount of good, clean, fine salt to avoid mineral stains, and spread the pelt, hair-side down on a clean dry table or floor. When the brine forms, and within 48 hours, the pelt should be folded skin to skin, and sent to the tanner as soon as you reach home. If the head and cape have been prepared for mount­ing and shipment to a taxidermist is delayed, check the salt covering on the flesh side of the cape skin at intervals and resalt any thinly covered sections. If you have done a conscientious job of dressing out, skinning, and quartering your deer as suggested in this chapter, and you comply fully with the recom­mendations for transporting the animal, you should be able to deliver the carcass to your butcher in prime condition.

While we have discussed the method of handling your deer during warm weather, it should be remembered that venison should never be permitted to freeze if an unseasonable cold snap hits your hunting area. Venision like good beef is improved by hanging in the “aging room” at the locker plant for a week or 10 days. If you are going to do your own meat cutting, the carcass can be aged in the storage compartment of your family deep freezer or refrigerator (not in the quick freezing compartment). Meat is aged at a constant temperature of ap­proximately 40 degrees.

Whether or not you choose to cut up your deer, a knowl­edge of the different cuts of meat is essential to preparing them for the table. Not all cuts of venison are cooked in the same manner. A diagram of the various cuts is shown in Figure 60. These cuts are not arbitrary and they may be varied to suit the individual. In a case where the deer has been quartered and aged in the home freezer we would proceed as follows: Lay a hind quarter on the cutting table inside down and remove the leg by cutting close to and in front of the hip bone at A, Figure 60. Place the outside of the leg down on the table and remove the portion of flank (12a), sever the rump (4) from the round by cutting below and close to the pelvic or aitch bone (line F). The rump makes a good pot roast. About five or six steaks can be cut from the round. These must be Swissed or braised unless they are taken from a young buck or doe, in which case they may be broiled. The heel (2) is suitable for a pot roast, boiling or grinding. The rear shank (1) should be finely ground for meat balls or sausage.

Figure 60.

The flank (12) should be cut from the loin (5) along line D and treated in the same manner as the rear shank. The loin can be used as an oven roast or it may be cut into loin chops about three-fourths of an inch thick.

Next lay a front quarter, inside down, on the cutting table and cut between the fourth and fifth or the fifth and sixth ribs, B Figure 60. Separate the breast (11) from the ribs section (6) along the line D. The rib section (6) is cut into rib chops three-fourths of an inch thick, and the breast (11) is palatable when ground for sausage or meat loaf. Remove the neck from the shoulder by cutting as indicated by line C, Figure 60.

The shoulder joint is very prominent and is disjointed by cutting around the top of the enlargement, indicated by the slight curve of line D between cuts (7) and (9). Use a saw if you are unable to locate the joint. The shank (10) is sawed off and the meat ground. The arm (9) is used for ground meat or mince meat and the top of the shoulder or chuck (7) makes a good pot roast and may be boned and rolled easily. The neck (8) may be made into pot roasts, and the neck slices (8a) may be braised or used for stew, mince meat or ground meat.

Cooking Venison

Sausage. The less tender pieces of venison ground with fat pork (pork that is about 50 to 60 percent lean) are used to make sausage. Mix venison and pork in equal parts. In case sausage is to be kept in a deep freeze, it should be packed unseasoned in waxed containers. Unseasoned sausage will keep fresh in the deep freeze five or six months, whereas seasoned sausage will turn flat and rancid in 30 to 45 days when stored under the same conditions. Thaw and season to taste with salt, pepper, and a pinch of ground sage, if desired just before using.

Meat Loaf. Meat loaf can be made by grinding fresh pork fat with the venison in the proportion of one pound of fat to 10 pounds of venison.

Venison can be cooked by the housewife using the same methods that would be employed to cook similar cuts of beef. The fat may be removed from venison before cooking, since it has a tendency to cling to the roof of the mouth while eating. To keep the meat from becoming too dry, suet, pork fat, or bacon may be mixed with ground venison, and strips of bacon or salt pork may be placed on top of the roasts while they are cooking. Tender cuts of meat are cooked by dry heat and the less tender cuts by moist heat. The meat from an aged animal, buck or doe, will be appetiz­ing and tender if proper care is taken in cooking. Tomatoes, onion, garlic, spices, and herbs may be added if venison flavor is objectionable to anyone. The tender cuts, such as rib and loin chops, round steak, and leg roasts, can be pan-broiled, oven-broiled, or roasted. The neck, shanks, chuck, and breast, should be cooked with moist heat when they are not ground to make sausage, mince meat and meat loaf.

Roast Venison. (Loin and round.) An oven roast may be prepared from the loin or round of a doe or young buck.

Season with salt and pepper to taste. Place on a rack in a shallow pan in a preheated slow oven, 3000 to 32 50 F. Do not cover or add water. Lay strips of fat bacon or beef suet across the top of the meat to baste the venison as it roasts. Allow 20 to 25 minutes per pound.

Roast Leg of Venison. If the deer is a small one, a leg can be roasted as is a leg of lamb. The directions for Roast Venison apply.

Broiled Venison Steaks and Chops. (Round, loin, and rib.) Turn the oven regulator to broil and preheat the broiler. Place meat on greased rack in broiler about two inches from the flame. Leave oven door open slightly. Broil until top side is nicely brown (about five to seven minutes) then turn to other side for an equal period of time. Venison should be well browned on the surface but cooked rare. Season with salt and pepper or parsley butter and serve immediately.

Parsley Butter

1/2 cup of butter or margarine worked until creamy, add 1/2 teaspoon salt, dash of pepper, 1/4teaspoon finely chopped parsley and finally work in very slowly 3/4table­spoon of lemon juice.

Pan-Broiled Venison Steaks or Chops. (Round, loin, and rib.) Rub a heavy iron or aluminum frying pan with a little fat, and preheat. Steaks and chops should be about three-quarters inch thick. Do not cover pan and do not add water. Turn meat occasionally. Cook from 15 to 20 minutes. Do not overcook. Season with parsley butter and serve at once.

Braised Venison. (Shoulder, neck, breast, shank, and chuck.) Season with salt and pepper. Rub well with flour. Brown both sides slowly in hot fat in a heavy skillet. Add about one cup of water and cover, cook very slowly until tender. Requires two to three hours. Turn meat occasionally.

Pot Roast. (Rump, Shoulder, neck with tendons removed.) Brown meat slowly on all sides in a Dutch oven, pressure cooker, or other heavy utensil. Roll meat in flour and season with salt, pepper, and herbs to taste. Add 1/4to 1/2cup of water and cover tightly. Cook at low temperature, below the boiling point, until meat is tender (about 2l/2 to 3 hours). If a pressure cooker is employed, follow the directions given in the manual for beef. Vegetables, such as carrots, onions, potatoes, and celery may be added when the meat is about three-quarters done.

Gravy. The liquid from the pot roast is used to make gravy. Bring the liquid to a boil. Make a smooth paste of flour and water. Add a small amount of the liquid to the paste and stir well to prevent lumps. Add this mixture to the liquid in the vessel, a little at a time, and stir constantly to prevent the formation of lumps. Boil about three minutes. The amount of flour paste added to the liquid will govern the consistency of the gravy. Season to taste.

Swiss Steak. (Round.) Take two pounds of round steak sliced one to two inches thick. Roll meat in flour and pound in. Season with salt and pepper and brown both sides slowly in a heavy skillet which has been lightly greased and preheated. Add one and one-half cups of water or canned tomatoes, and three large sliced onions. Cover tightly and cook slowly on top of the stove or in a slow oven 3250 F., for 1l/2 to 2 hours or until tender. Remove meat and make gravy from the liquid. If a pressure cooker is used, the time should be reduced accord­ingly.

Stew. (Neck, heel, and arm, also breast or shoulder.) Take two pounds of meat and cut into 1 1/2 inch cubes. Roll in flour and brown in a heavy skillet which has been lightly greased and preheated. Remove meat to a kettle and add 3 cups boiling water, 2 teaspoons of salt and 1/4teaspoon of pepper. Pour one cup of boiling water into skillet and stir to obtain the meat flavor. Add to the liquid in the kettle. Cover and simmer (cook slowly at low temperature) until the meat is tender. This will take about two hours unless a pressure cooker is used. Dice 4 medium-sized potatoes, 4 carrots, 4 medium sized onions, and add these vegetables to the kettle and cook an additional 20 minutes or until tender. If necessary add more water as the meat cooks. The stew may be thickened by adding 2 tablespoons of flour, which has been mixed with water to make a thin paste, stirring as the stew boils
Meat Loaf. (Neck, flank, shank, and breast.) Grind 2l/2 pounds of meat and 1/4 pound of beef suet or salt pork. Mix thoroughly. Add 2 teaspoons salt and dash of pepper, 3/4 cup of dry bread crumbs, 2 eggs beaten lightly, 3/4 cup of milk, and 1/2small onion chopped fine. Mix thoroughly, shape into a loaf, place in a greased baking pan, and bake 2l/2 hours in a moderate oven, 3500 F.

Liver and Onions. Pour boiling water over the liver twice. Drain. Dip liver in flour and brown in heavy iron skillet in bacon fat. Season with salt, add 2 cups of water cover and allow to simmer slowly for 1 hour. Remove liver from skillet and brown 2 cups of sliced onions. Replace liver, add 1 cup of water, cover, and simmer slowly l/2 hour.

In the Prairie States vast acreages of grass lands were turned under with the plow; and marshes and swamps were drained. The gradual lowering of the water table and erosion of the soil has forced abandonment of these farms by their owners. The good top soil has either been blown or washed away and there no longer remains sufficient food and cover to support wildlife once abundant in the area.

Nature is an ever changing process and all life must adapt itself to changing conditions in order to survive. Too frequently man in his effort to improve his individual status has hastened this change and the immediate gain has subsequently been followed by unexpected losses which have been detrimental to the general welfare. The destruction of our forests and overgraz­ing of grass lands have turned once fertile areas of the earth’s surface into waste lands; and where once the riches of nature were abundant on every side, they now are insufficient for man’s survival. Close at home we see the barren hillsides, eroded and gully washed fields of farms from which during heavy rains the remainder of the top soil is rapidly being carried away by silt laden streams. Soil, which is essential for all life, and which took nature hundreds of years to produce, has been recklessly wasted during our lifetime.

How many of us have considered that the decline in our wildlife population is closely allied to the loss of soil and the reduction of ground water supplies due to misuse of entire watersheds and improper and consequently unprofit­able farming methods? Conservation is now widely advocated. Not only is it essential to our general welfare but it is also profitably practiced by individuals. Modern farming methods based on sound conservation principles have resulted in in­creased productivity of the soil and consequently increased in­come for the land owner. The term, conservation, is widely mis­understood and is frequently assumed to denote a system which advocates voluntary or governmental restriction of the use of nature’s products, including wildlife. The opposite is, of course, the case. Good conservation practices applied to the land result in greater income to the land owner from improved crops and the land increases in value. Actually conservation is aimed at the retention of top soil and water on the land. Ways to prevent the reduction of the water supply and loss of top soil, and at the same time preserve or increase the productivity of the land are the tools of the conservationist. Contour strip cropping and rotation of crops on the better field areas of farm lands, plant­ing trees, shrubs, vines, clovers and grasses to stabilize soil and retain water on steep slopes and gullies, selective lumbering of the forested areas and management of woodlots are but a few of the methods by which the humus content of the soil can be increased, and the water table raised, so that the land will once more produce not only an abundance of the needs of man but supply in addition the food and cover so essential to wildlife.

It should be increasingly evident that we cannot expect to depend solely on the efforts of our Game and Wildlife Officials for an adequate supply of small game. The propogation and release of game birds and animals are only one phase of the wildlife management problem. If we are to improve our hunting we must provide suitable habitat for wildlife. That means primarily food and cover, and we must do it as groups and as individuals. It is just wishful thinking to expect the conservation departments of the various states, and more especially those whose duties embrace the field of wildlife man­agement, to do this work. They can and do provide tech­nical advice and assistance in the planning stage of a project, and they have established pilot projects where the success of the suggested practices is evident to even a casual observer. The success of the plan on a large scale is rightly dependent on the individual land owner to whom the benefits will accrue if the suggested practices are adopted.

The archery club which has purchased land and constructed a field course, and the hunting and fishing clubs which have purchased extensive acreage of abandoned or sub-marginal farm land have generally failed to realize the potential benefits which would accrue to the club from the adoption of a long range food and cover program to increase the wildlife population on their own property. Such a program, prepared with the assist­ance of the Game, Fish, and Forestry Departments does not require a large financial outlay. Seedlings, fertilizer, and seed for food plots will require cash, but the balance of the program and it’s ultimate success depend primarily on a plen­tiful and enthusiastic supply of voluntary labor. Any long term overall plan can be subdivided into dozens of small proj­ects which can be undertaken by a single individual or a small group as their contribution to the general plan. Properly admin­istered and publicized the plan will be enthusiastically sup­ported by the labor of the members and can be carried to a successful conclusion when every member can see how his individual effort contributes to the rehabilitation of the land.

Too many clubs are releasing pen raised birds on sub-marginal land which will not support a wildlife population in its present state. Birds released under such unfavorable condi­tions must scatter far and wide if they are to survive and little improvement is noticeable in the number of birds seen on the home range. Continuing day-after-day care is required to raise birds for liberation and unless favorable conditions for their survival exist or are created on the club grounds the program does not prove satisfactory and the project is abandoned.

Management of agriculture, wildlife, and woodland areas on many of the sub-marginal or abandoned farms now owned by sportsmen’s groups is directed toward developing the acreage for wildlife. The treatment of the land differs from practices approved for farm lands where the primary objective is a continuing cash profit from farm crops. Although they work toward different objectives, the farmer and the sportsmen find that modern farming practices and a food and cover program for wildlife have much in common. Both must take measures to stop the loss of soil from erosion caused by wind and water and each is concerned with increasing the productivity of the land. The aim of the sportsman is adequate food and cover to support a wildlife population on the land.

Gully-washed fields, eroded and barren hillsides, abandoned fields which produce a straggly crop of wire grass, wood lots where over crowding and large trees prevent an undergrowth of shrubs and vines so necessary to wildlife, is unfortunately an accurate description of too many of our club properties and in particular the many field courses recently constructed by the bowhunters. To change this picture is not only desirable but necessary if the average bowman expects to find any game during the course of a morning’s hunt. While hunting may not be desirable on the field course, the course might well be set aside as a refuge and propagation area from which the game would spread to adjacent lands.
Where a well defined land-use plan has been followed, the increase in the wildlife population can reach startling propor­tions. In the State of Pennsylvania a Farm-Game Project coop-erator requested a Game Warden to provide additional feed for the ring-neck pheasants on his property during the owner’s absence in the month of January. The Game Warden re­ported there were by actual count over 200 hen pheasants and 32 cock birds on this property and the two adjoining farms.

In addition the Warden live-trapped 16 rabbits during the month. The reason for the concentration of game in such numbers is attributed to multiflora rose hedge, coral berry, evergreens and a few small briar patches.

Much of the work necessary to transform your barren club property into a suitable habitat for wildlife can be self-supporting; other operations will require the labor of the interested bowhunters and other members of sportsmen’s clubs. Recommended practices for development of the land are varied and numerous. Many of them are so simple of application that once introduced and after viewing the results, we are rather embarrassed at our lack of vision. Gradual development of the club property over a period of years is a goal that is easily obtainable without straining the finances of the parent organ­ization.

Thus far we have discussed generally the need for habitat improvement in order to increase the wildlife population. Habitat may be improved by any of the following practices. As single projects, each one is beneficial to wildlife. The fol­lowing portions of the text describe practices applicable to the Middle Atlantic States. However, they illustrate a general pattern which may be changed and adapted to any part of the country, substituting plantings and farming methods which have proven successful.

Farming Fields. These are the better soil sites which have undergone the least erosion. Local farmers can be interested in a share cropping agreement, whereby they undertake to farm certain fields on a crop rotation basis, planting corn with a ryegrass cover crop one year, wheat or oats the second year and then seeding clover which should stand two or more years. In return the club may either take a share of the harvested grains, or arrange with the share-cropper to plant other food strips without charge.

Field Hedges. Establish contour hedges approximately 36 feet wide between crop fields. Tatarian honeysuckle, arrow-wood, and multiflora rose can be used for the center rows. Bicolor lespedeza may be planted next, with the outside strip seeded to sericea lespedeza. On open field areas these wide hedges provide wildlife with natural food and cover adjacent to the cropland. Lespedezas make good-quality food for quail in parts of the Middle and South Atlantic States. Since the lespedezas are legumes, which supply their own nitrogen after the first year, they are valuable crops in a program of soil improvement. Many of them provide excellent cover for erod­ing areas.

Field Edges And Odd Comers. Field edges of crop lands adjacent to fence rows or woodland borders are equally as important in the wildlife program as the crop grown on the field. The share-cropper should be instructed to seed a 30 foot food strip to sericea lespedeza or a grass-clover mixture. Equipment may be turned on these field ends if due care is taken to protect game birds nesting in the area. When fields are contoured, odd corners of ground remaining at various loca­tions are valuable assets. These spots will provide safe nesting areas for wildlife and they may be planted to any one or a combination of the shrubs mentioned for hedge row plantings or seeded to sericea lespedeza or a grass-clover mixture. Very often the natural reproduction of shrubs and vines will improve the food and cover on these areas.

Permanent Sod. Permanent grass-clover areas should be maintained above steep fields. To establish small grains such as wheat, rye, or barley they should be planted in the fall; then seed permanent type grass-clover mixture the following spring, or plant oats thinly in the spring and seed at the same time with the grass-clover mixture. The areas should be mowed late each summer to stimulate succulent growth. This can be done by the farmer who handles the share cropping activities.

These areas are used by nesting birds and rabbits. The value of these areas which produce greens and insect life for young birds to feed upon is dependent upon suitable cover immedi­ately adjacent thereto. They do not serve their intended dual purpose of preventing erosion and providing food for wildlife if small game has to cross open spaces to reach the plot.

Nut Tree And Fruit Orchards. Trees and shrubs, including walnut, hickory, Asiatic chestnut, and filbert may be planted as orchard crops. Part of the nut yield should be left for wild­life and if necessary a portion of the crop may be sold to defray development and maintenance costs. The young trees will have to be protected by wire mesh screening from rabbits and a sapling and brush inclosure will need to be erected around each tree if deer are present in the vicinity. Young trees have almost no chance of survival where deer can browse on the tender shoots. The area in which the trees are planted should be cultivated and seeded to clovers. Mow annually and mulch the trees with hay and weeds. Prune to provide shape and clearance for cultivating and harvesting. Apple trees also provide an important food for wildlife. Fallen fruits and pruned branches are eaten by rabbits during the fall and winter months.

Managing Old Orchards. Neglected orchards can be man­aged to provide an abundant supply of food and cover. Fell the maple, locust, aspen, ash and other timber which has become established in the orchard and is robbing the old apple trees of the necessary sunlight. Pile the tops to provide cover. The old fruit trees should be severely pruned during the winter months to improve the quality of the fruit. Pile the branches to provide both food and cover for rabbits. Fallen apples also provide food for ring-necked pheasants, grouse, deer and foxes.

Old Fence Rows. Large maple, ash, locust and aspen trees growing in old fence rows should be felled to permit sunlight to reach the mixture of shrubs growing beneath them. Full sunlight will increase the fruit yield of shrubs and vines such as blackberry, raspberry, grape, greenbriar, choke cherry, sassa­fras, and flowering dogwood. Limbs and tops of the felled trees should be piled to provide cover. An exception to this practice is to spare an old den tree, since squirrels, raccoons and cavity nesting birds require hollow trees for their homes. Incidentally, “one-eighth” wooden beer kegs with a two-inch hole bored in them make wonderful squirrel dens. Field hedges which have been planted between crop fields should be tied into these old fence rows or to woodland borders to provide continuous sheltered lanes of travel for wildlife.

Eroded Hillside Areas. At these locations on the club prop­erty wildlife cover can be improved by seeding the steepest slopes to one of the shrub lespedezas. All shrub lespedezas are perennials that grow from 4 to 8 feet high and prevent erosion wherever they are planted. They are particularly good for gully control. These plantings should be made in strips along the contour. In alternate strips or on the gentler slopes, ever­green seedlings may be planted. Planted yearly in lots of 500 to 1000 depending on the space available, they can be marketed in various sizes over three feet tall for Christmas trees. Seed­lings of Scotch pine, Austrian pine, red pine, and Norway spruce may be purchased from commercial nurserymen. Seed­lings can often be obtained at a nominal cost from State nurseries under an agreement to permit the trees to grow and reforest the area. Trees obtained in this manner can not be sold as Christmas trees. The financial condition of each individual club will govern the method employed. The primary purpose of the plantings is to stabilize the soil, prevent rapid run off of surface water, and especially to provide cover for wildlife.

Waste Areas. Old building foundations, outcrops of rock, and sink holes provide retreat areas, and when trees, shrubs and vines become established they produce a good supply of food for wildlife. On large areas a central planting of 25 or 30 evergreens spaced about eight feet apart will provide year round cover. Thornapple, multiflora rose, arrowwood, gray dogwood and hazelnut seedlings, spaced four feet apart may be planted around the evergreens.

Stream Banks. Badly eroded stream banks should be sloped and then planted with shrubs native to wet soils. Basket willow, elderberry, red ozier dogwood, and silky dogwood, are suitable plantings. They may be spaced about three feet apart. The newly sloped bank should be mulched with branches held in place with willow stakes and wire. Along the top of the bank, added protection and increased food and cover for wildlife may be attained by planting a row of multiflora rose, spaced about three feet apart.

Wood Lots. Shrubs ana vines produce more fruits ana heavier foliage when grown in the open sunlight. Large timber should be marked and sold for saw logs. The cut may be lim­ited to definite species and minimum diameters. Clumps of shrubs are released from competitive growth by felling trees away from the shrubs or cutting and piling the tops. Drop trees with vines on the top of the piles to form natural arbors. Harvesting of all trees on scattered plots of approximately one acre will provide favorable conditions for the growth of shrubs and vines. Tree tops should be piled along one side of the slashing and immediately adjacent thereto food strips contain­ing a mixture of clover and grasses should be planted. Acid soil will benefit by the application of fertilizer and lime. To use a woodlot for pasture destroys its value from the sports­man’s standpoint. Wildlife cannot compete with cattle or other stock which destroy the food and cover so essential to its survival. Only those farming practices beneficial to wildlife should be permitted on the club properties, and these should be closely supervised to insure the welfare of the wildlife population and not the value of the cash crop is the primary consideration.

Gullies. Gullies provide excellent havens of refuge for wild­life. They are found on practically all of the sub-marginal farms that have been purchased by local sportsmen’s clubs. They are formed by water erosion, but the soil must be stabilized and vegetation induced to grow, if they are to be of any benefit to wildlife. The bottoms of deep gullies may be planted to basket willow, elderberry, and red ozier dog­wood; the lower slopes to banks pine and black locust, and the upper slopes to Tatarian honeysuckle, blackhaw, and gray dogwood. If the gullies are shallow and in tillable fields, disc and seed to perennial grasses and clovers. Shrubs may be planted at intervals of 3 feet. The immediate area should be retired from cultivation and the resultant plant growth will reduce erosion and produce food and cover for wildlife which prefers to dwell close to cultivated areas.

Sericea Lespedeza. Sericea Lespedeza is a deep rooted, bushy perennial standing 2 to 4 feet in height with greenish yellow flowers. Its ability to withstand shade in the unproductive field border between cultivated fields and woodland, makes it very useful as wildlife cover. The seed does not mature farther north than central Pennsylvania. Being a legume it produces its own nitrogen and builds up the fertility of the soil.

Multiflora Rose. Since a hedge of this species is stock-proof, it is useful as a living fence. It prefers dry to well drained soils and it will grow in almost any place that is not shaded. Multi­flora grows from 6 to 10 feet high and bears a profusion of white flowers in May and June. Multiflora rose does not spread from rootstalks. Drooping side canes, if they touch exposed soil, may take root and grow. Ordinary cultivation practices on adjacent ground will prevent the planting from spreading.

General. Enough has been written to impress upon the reader the desirability of undertaking a planned food and cover pro­gram to increase the wildlife population on lands owned by the organized sportsmen’s clubs. The work may progress from year to year and need not impose a financial burden on the membership. Wildlife will be attracted to the property and any releases of pen raised birds or small game will find suitable habitat in the immediate vicinity.

Specific planting instructions of suitable species of food and cover crops can be obtained from the local Soil Conservation District office, the State Game and Forestry Departments, and your local County Agricultural Agent. A selected list of pub­lications dealing with the subject is included in the Bibliogra­phy. A number of pamphlets may be obtained without charge upon written request to the various agencies.

A diversity of interests also exists among members of any particular group, and wildlife administrators are under constant pressure from organized minorities within groups to whom self interest is more important than the welfare of the group as a whole. According to wildlife experts, the educational and recreational aspects of our wildlife resources are the true measure of their value to society and management practices should have these ends in view. On this basis the value of a deer herd in any particular state is not measured by the number of the animals in the herd but by the numbers of persons who seek the deer in its natural habitat and the length of time in which this elusive animal may be legally hunted. To many persons the opportunity to observe deer in the wild state is sufficient reward; others are sportsmen interested only in a buck carrying a trophy rack, while a large number of hunters find just as much sport in hunting a doe as a buck; and when a supply of venison is sought for the family larder, the meat of a yearling doe will prove equal to if not superior to that of a buck. Each year, in increasing numbers bowmen seek to match their skill against the wily deer and other big game animals. It is the studied conclusion of conservation officials in one of our leading big game states that the white tail deer herd can stand an unlimited amount of hunting with the bow and arrow. As a result Wisconsin and Michigan have gradually extended the length of the special archery season and in 1954 Wisconsin had a 51 and Michigan a 36 day season when bear and deer of either sex were legal game for the bowmen.

Among the several states there is lack of uniformity in the regulations governing bowhunting. Over the past few years a trend toward longer seasons and the inclusion of bear and other game animals to the list that may be hunted during a special archery season is clearly discernible. Pennsylvania was the first state to pass legislation making the bow a legal game weapon. Beginning in 1929, game could be legally taken with the bow throughout the commonwealth during the regular hunting season. Two archery preserves, which have since been discontinued, were set aside for bowhunters in 1937. However, it was not until 1951 that a law was passed which enabled the Game Commission to declare an open season for hunting deer with bows and arrows exclusively. In Pennsylvania, the Game Commission is empowered to fix the time and duration of the special archery season and to declare the sex and descrip­tion of deer which may be legally killed. Beginning in 1951 and in each of the succeeding years there has been a special archery deer season of approximately two weeks duration dur­ing the first half of the month of October. Only bucks are legal game with a limit of one during the combined seasons. A special archery license fee of $2.00 in addition to the regular resident hunting license fee of $3.15 is required. The regular license covers both large and small game. A special archery license is not required to hunt during the regular hunting season.

Pennsylvania has the sixth largest deer herd in the nation. However, the herd has an unbalanced sex ratio. Special antler-less deer seasons have been held after the regular hunting season over a period of years in an attempt to harvest the surplus of does where the food supply of the range has been depleted. Pennsylvania has not had a hunter’s choice deer season. From 1951 to 1954 inclusive, bowhunters bought 39,340 special archery season licenses and reported a total kill of 196 bucks.

Michigan is credited with possessing the largest white tail deer herd in the United States, an estimated 600,000 deer. A resident license to hunt deer and bear costs $3.50. The total kill for the 1954 season was 97,000 deer. Fifteen hundred of these deer were killed by the 29,000 bowhunters who partici­pated in the special archery season for bear and deer of either sex, which extended from October 1 to November 5 and cov­ered the entire state with the exception of two counties. Michigan has had a special archery season since 1937 when two counties were opened to bowhunters from November 1 through November 14. The bowhunter was permitted to shoot bear, and deer with three inch antlers. A total of 194 licenses were issued for that first special archery season and the bow­hunters bag consisted of four deer.

The Wisconsin white tail deer herd is ranked third largest in the nation, exceeded only by the herds in Michigan and Minnesota. The herd is estimated to number 500,000 deer. Wisconsin established the first special archery deer season in the United States in 1934 when two counties in the south central part of the state were opened to bowhunting from November 24th to November 28th. Bucks not less than one year old were legal game. Forty bowmen registered for the hunt and one lone deer was reported killed. With the exception of the year 1935 when there was no open season for deer, Wisconsin has had an annual special archery season. The length of the special archery season has been increased year after year until in 1954 all of Wisconsin’s 71 counties were open to bow and arrow deer hunting for a period of 51 days. Bow­hunters have also enjoyed special seasons for hunting bear, turkey, and pheasant. Resident hunters who wish to hunt deer may purchase a license for $2.50. A small game license costs an additional $2.00. Bow and arrow hunting is now considered Wisconsins’ fastest growing outdoor sport. In 1949 an esti­mated 12,000 bowhunters killed 551 deer. This is the highest kill reported during nineteen Wisconsin bowhunting seasons to and including 1953. The year 1953 marked the seventh con­secutive season in which bowmen could hunt a buck, doe, or fawn legally. Annual kill records show a total of 2,867 deer taken by bowhunters in Wisconsin during the 19 years of established bow and arrow deer seasons including the year 1953. The insignificance of the kill indicates a negligible effect on the deer populations, and in the opinion of the authorities there is no need of a reduced season from a game management point of view.

Reports from Michigan and Wisconsin show that between 5% and 6% of the bowhunters succeed in bringing down a deer during the special archery seasons, while at least 30% of the gunhunters bag a deer during the regular season. The authorities in these states are unanimous in concluding that the sport of bowhunting offers a maximum of recreation with a minimum harvest of game, and where herd reduction is necessary in problem-areas an unlimited amount of bowhunting would have no appreciable effect on the harvest of deer.

In 1951 West Virginia joined the growing list of the states which have introduced a hunter’s choice deer season in an attempt to reduce the size of the herd to conform to the avail­able food supply. In 1954 West Virginia deer hunters harvested an estimated 16,672 deer, divided almost equally between bucks and does. The Conservation Commission of the state believes that the hunter’s choice deer season has proved to be the way to obtain maximum harvest of deer as well as providing a maximum amount of sport to the hunter. The hunter’s choice seasons have demonstrated that West Virginia is capable of a sustained kill, greater than was ever obtained during bucks only seasons; and it assures West Virginian’s the opportunity of harvesting the deer surplus legally, instead of permitting it to be wasted through starvation, or old age. In four years, better than 75,000 deer have been cropped in West Virginia, nearly twice as many as were taken in the state in 20 years of hunting only buck deer. West Virginia officials believe that they will be able to harvest deer at a slowly increasing rate until an annual kill of 25,000 deer has been attained.

The 1954 West Virginia gun season was of three days dura­tion. However, the special archery deer season extended from September 15 to October 16, and November 11 to November 27, a total of 46 days. The regular resident hunting license costing $2.00 entitles a resident to hunt during the special archery deer season. No record of the number of bowhunters who participated in the special archery season is available. A total of twenty-nine deer were reported taken by bowmen; ten of this number were antlered bucks.

An overall picture of bow hunting in the nation may be gained from an examination of the data shown on the accom­panying chart, Figure 61. The information was supplied through the courtesy of the conservation officials of the various states. The states selected for inclusion in the survey met two general requirements. Geographically they are considered representative of the whole nation and in each of them deer may be legally hunted. Five of the six states which stand at the head of the list in the size of their respective deer herds are included. Minne­sota, which ranks second has not been included, since both Michigan in the number one spot and Wisconsin in third place are considered representative of that geographical area of the nation.

Summarizing the results obtained from the survey we find that 15 of the 18 states have a special archery deer season. Arizona has set aside special areas for the exclusive use of bow-hunters during the regular season. Eight of the states require the bowman to pay an additional fee to hunt during the special archery season. A regular hunting license is all that is required in the remaining states. In twelve of the states, the bowman has a hunter’s choice during the special archery deer season. Florida, Pennsylvania, and Vermont restrict the bowhunter to antlered deer during the special archery season.

The size and condition of the deer herd in any state is the result of a number of factors: extent of the range, food supply, sex ratio, and gun pressure are major factors which must be taken into consideration by wildlife administrators if we are to obtain the maximum of benefit from the herd. At the turn of the century there was an abundant food supply and the problem consisted in building up a herd. Stocking, closed and still later restricted seasons, and limiting the kill to antlered deer served to build the herd to a size where deer were rapidly depleting the available food supply. Antlerless deer seasons were introduced in an attempt to control the size of the herd. A glance at the chart will show that most of the states have repealed the bucks-only law and permit a hunter’s choice dur­ing the regular gun season as well as in the special archery season. Results have proved the wisdom of this decision. A better balance has been achieved between the sexes; deer are increasing in size; trophy racks are more in evidence as the herd is brought more nearly in balance with the food supply, and there is less evidence of deer dying from malnutrition during the winter months. Fears that a hunter’s choice would deplete the herd have been unfounded and the yearly kill is being maintained at an impressive figure.

The extent of the special archery season in the several states is roughly proportional to the number of years such a season has been in effect within that particular state. A similar pattern runs through each state. The first year a limited area is opened for a few days. In succeeding years the area is enlarged until it includes the entire deer range and the season and bag limits are expanded as more and more persons are attracted to the sport. The 51 day, state-wide, special archery season for bear and any deer which is enjoyed by Wisconsin bowhunters who need purchase only a regular hunting license is an impressive example of what may be accomplished by enlightened wildlife management under present day conditions toward securing the maximum recreational benefits from our wildlife resources.

LEADING WHITE TAIL DEER HERDS OF THE UNITED STATES*
Michigan 600,000
Minnesota 583,600
Wisconsin 500,000
Texas 450,000
New York 375,000
Pennsylvania 300,000
* Estimated as of January 1, 1954. Data supplied by the Pennsylvania Game Commission.

Bow Hunting in Groups

If you go alone on a bow hunting venture, the risks are higher. You might get injured accidentally and land into a serious situation. Further, you might be attacked by dangerous animals without warning when you are alone. Hence, hunting in groups is always advisable. When an animal comes into the hunting range, at least one of the hunters would sight it and warn the others. Further, the hunters should keep a safe distance from one another but be able to see the others. This is important when one hunter stops abruptly or trips. The others would be able to help the hunter in trouble immediately. Further, enough first aid materials should be carried along based on the number of persons in the group. The first aid kit should include important items such as insect repellents, snake-bite protection equipment, etc.

Maintenance of Bow Hunting Equipment

The condition of the bow hunting equipment is important when you go on a hunting expedition. The bow should be maintained with great care and attention. You should ensure that the bow is perfect condition and it is not exposed to extreme variations of temperature or humidity. Many bow hunters generally leave their bows outside the camping cabin, so that it is not brought out from the warm confines of the cabin to the cold air of the morning, exposing it to sudden change in temperature.

Similarly, the quivers also need constant inspection, attention and safety measures. On many occasions, the broadhead of the arrow works through the bottom seams of the quiver and injures you when you are carrying it on your back. You can prevent this hazard by fitting a thin sheet of metal such as copper to the inside of the lining at the bottom of the quiver. The metal sheet could be fixed in the shape of a cup with a height of around four inches and fitted tightly to the bottom lining of the quiver. This would prevent the point of the arrow from piercing the bottom of the quiver and injuring your back. At the same time, the metal cup should be reinforced with thick sponge rubber to prevent the broadhead from scrapping against the metal and losing its sharpness. The sponge would also prevent the arrows from clanging against each other and becoming dull.

Common Accidents in Bow Hunting

Majority of the accidents during bow hunting are self-inflicted, due to lack of proper precautions, absence of common sense, and a careless attitude. The hunter should not put the arrow to the bow and nock it before sighting the game. This would avoid injury by the arrow if the hunter stumbled and fell down. Further, the hunter should also be watchful of each step, since even small hurdles in the path could easily trip a person. Falling down and getting pierced by the arrow is a common accident that most hunters had encountered in the past. As such, it is advisable to keep the arrow in the quiver until you sight the game. You should take out the arrow and put it in the bow only when you are sure that the game is in clear sight and within the shooting range.

Further, when you hunt in a group, the possibility of accidentally hitting another hunter definitely exists. The bows used in hunting usually do not have a long range. With short range bows, random shooting against the game could easily hit another hunter in the group. Hence, adequate care should be taken to ensure that the game is clearly sighted and within the range of shooting. The hunters should coordinate themselves, so that only the game is aimed at and shot by one or more hunters. This could be achieved through previously arranged sign language.

The other types of accidents occur when the hunter is not in the process of hunting. Many bow hunters and arrowsmiths had injured themselves while sharpening the point of the arrow or filing an edge. Even serious hand slices had been recorded. Careful handling of the equipment while preparing them for the forthcoming hunting is required. This would help in avoiding injuries to the hand or other parts of the body, even when the sharpening instruments slips from your hand accidentally.

If all the above precautionary and safety measures are meticulously followed in bow hunting, you would be able to avoid all dangers and risks and hunt your favorite game in the safest possible manner.

Safety is paramount when handling a bow. Just like other modern weapons, there are certain techniques and procedures that should be followed when handling the bow. Remember that loaded bow can kill or in least cause grave damage to both humans and other living beings. Never take aim, unless you are ready to shoot. Too many accidents have happened when the lethal weapon was misused or the archer was inexperienced.

Here are some of the points that we would like to discuss to drill the importance of safety

1. Personal tackle
2. The Field and the equipment used in the Field
3. How proper techniques of shooting should be enforced
4. Safety tips that should also be followed by the instructor.

Proper care for personal tackle

Personal tackle care is extremely important. Respect the bow as it is a lethal weapon and you must ensure that it is always kept in good shape. Inspection of the bow at regular intervals is extremely important. Keep arrows in a safe place unless you are ready to shoot and never lose track of the safety procedures that must be followed even in the most difficult situations.

Your bow should be kept dry and waxed at all points in time. Moisture can kill the effectiveness of the bow. Inspection is a critical area and should be done regularly especially for the limbs. If you do find some nicks, they can be easily fixed with clear nail polish. Your next consideration should be the drawstring. This too needs to be waxed. Part of loading the bow is also loading the drawstring. You must also know the procedure for redrawing the bowstring as well as fixing the loops, when it becomes necessary.

The nocking point is important and as a student, you should also learn to check for the arrow nocks and be able to make a quick restoration if required on the field. The arrow shafts should always be straight, in case they have become crooked, then set them aside. They can always be corrected with an arrow straightner. If the arrow is long and the cracked portion can be removed, then do so. Other archers may be able to use them. Other accessories such as finger guards and arm guards should always be in top condition to meet the field competition standards.

Safety standards should also be met on the archery field

When practising on the field, the grass must be mowed really close, since it makes it easier to find the arrows that go missing. When you find the arrows on the ground, ensure that the ground is covered up to prevent any future accidents for other archers that are practising on the field.

The field equipment that includes the arrow stands should also be in a good condition for effective target practice. They arrow stands should be defined and affixed to the ground to ensure that they don’t fall off on impact with the arrow. If the instructor thinks that the butt has become blunt or isn’t effective, then they should be changed. Frequent practice on the butts can soften them making the arrow safety and control a dangerous issue. Blasts coming out of the whistle should be distinct. If word commands are being used then, make sure that they are said loudly and clearly to avoid confusion at all costs.

Instructors should follow the proper technique for shooting when teaching their students

One of the most common mistakes that are made by the beginners is the arm slap. An arm slap happens when the drawstring due to improper shooting technique hits the arm. In fact it can be dangerous as an arm flap can also hit other archers as well. Instructors need to teach various methods of drawing the string perfectly to ensure that the students can aim at the target. The various techniques of drawing and aiming are known as bow hold, draw hand and hook, raise bow and draw and finally the anchor point.

Sometimes the arrow can land just short off the shooting line or even a few feet further away. In case this happens, you can retrieve the arrow. With your feet planted on the shooting line, you can reach the arrow while using the limbs of the bow. In case the arrow can be reclaimed back, then you can take it back or else, the arrow will be considered as shot.

Look ahead directly in front of you especially when looking for arrows that have gone astray. This will prevent you from stepping into the arrows that are in your path (have gone missing from other people’s bow or even your own). Safety precaution is important unless you wilfully want to be killed or crushed.

Arrows are dangerous whether they are zipping across to the target or whether they are being pulled out from the target practice arrow stand. To ensure that one doesn’t get hurt, grab the arrow with one hand and hold the stand with another hand and pull the arrow in a twisting portion instead of just pulling it out. You can also use the arrow puller to keep the arrows straight. Brace yourself since the arrow can suddenly come out right in your face. To ensure that you do not hurt or face or eyes, do not get your face close or in direct level with the arrow. Always wear a chest protector that can decrease the chances of bowstring snapping and hurting you.

Instructors should pay special attention to these safety tips and negligence can cause irreparable fatalities

Instructors should pay attention to the technique in which archers are launching their arrows and need to be extremely vigilant. Moreover when target practice is happening, the field are should be closed for other humans and animals. In spite of the field being closed, at times, people or animals may stray in the path of the target practice. The instructor needs to keep a close watch on the field to ensure that nobody wanders in the path.

Students may indulge in horseplay with the archery equipment and the tackle. Desist the students from doing so. The bow is a lethal weapon, that can maim and kill and students should be aware of its power and respect the strength.

During shooting, the archers should be spread out to prevent stray arrows from hitting the archers themselves. The usual recommendation for the placement of the targets for the archers is about six yards from each other. Now there is enough space for the archers to fully practice their skills without the fear of coming in each other’s way.

All students and instructors should be behind the shooting line when the signal for shooting is given. If not, wait for people to clear off the ground before sounding the signal. Don’t show anything to a student when the bow has been drawn. In case a student experiences pain or discomfort during any time, ask them to speak up and take the required medical action immediately. If a back arm slap does happen, apply an ice bag or cold water to prevent the area from swelling. Above all proper techniques for shooting must be shown, taught and reinforced at all points of time.